Friday, 22. January 2010
Author: William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN SCHOOLING
KEY POINTS
- Public education is the largest employer in this country.
- Some of the reforms, as a result of the critical reports issued in the early 1980s, have been successful while others have failed.
- The majority of the general public believe schools have stayed the same or gotten worse during the past five years.
- The purposes of today’s schools go way beyond the original purposes of religious and academic training.
- The melting pot theory has never been fully realized; many diverse cultural groups retain distinct identities and are represented in public schools.
- To improve the quality of teachers, many states have initiated reforms including competency tests, better salaries, merit pay, incentives, merit pay incentives, and stiffer entrance requirements into teacher education programs.
- Conservative groups played a major role in the educational reform movement of the 1980s.
- Changing enrollment patterns continue to create problems in planning for public education.
- The general future outlook for public education is excellent.
CHAPTER 1–INTRODUCTION TO AMERICAN SCHOOLING
A. OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 presents information regarding the status of public education in this country. Specific content focuses on the magnitude of education, current trends, effective schools, and future possibilities in public school programs.
B. KEY TERMS–DEFINITIONS
A NATION AT RISK – this report issued in 1983 by a government commission called for far-reaching reforms.
ACCOUNTABILITY – responsibility related to quality of educational programs.
AFT – American Federation of Teachers, a major teacher union. The AFT has more than 825,000 members.
BILINGUAL EDUCATION – a component of multicultural education that focuses on attempts to teach English skills to non-English speakers. The students are taught in their native language until they become proficient enough in English to receive the majority of instruction in English. In some cases instruction in the child’s native language receives equal attention with English.
CONSERVATIVE MOVEMENT – calls for returning to the basic purpose of public schools such as:
a. return to emphasizing the basic core of academic subjects;
- a de-emphasis on extracurricular activities;
- an emphasis on moral education;
- inclusion of school prayer;
- more control of the education process by the family.
CRITICAL REPORTS – the most critical report was A Nation at Risk issued in 1983 by the National Commission of Excellence in Education.
CULTURAL PLURALISM – pluralists reject the traditional Americanizing function of the public school because it has meant assimilation and acculturation into the white, middle class pattern of American Society; a realization that the melting pot theory of American culture had not occurred and probably would not occur.
CURRICULAR REFORM – a back-to-the-basics reform movement started in the 1970s. Many believe the basic curriculum should have greater emphasis.
DECLINING ENROLLMENTS – changing enrollments have a major effect on the educational system:
- affecting state funding;
- impacting on the number of teachers needed;
- altering class sizes;
- causing redistricting of school boundaries;
- changing school plant needs.
HOME SCHOOLING – a conservative movement by parents to formally educate their children at home or in a small group setting.
MELTING POT – the theory that people from all cultures form a common bond.
MERIT PAY – a plan of providing extra pay for superior performance by teachers.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION – a concept predicated upon a fundamental belief that all people must be accorded respect, regardless of age, race, sex, economic class, religion, nationalism, physical or mental ability; innovative ways for dealing with the education of minorities.
NEA - National Education Association, one of the two major teacher unions: NEA is the larger and more powerful of the two– with 2.2 million members nationwide.
NEW RIGHT – a coalition that includes traditional conservative groups and certain fundamentalists religious groups who advocate extreme viewpoints.
PUBLIC EDUCATION – free, government-supported schools open to all children. Note: Resident alien children and illegal immigrant children are allowed to attend USA public schools.
REFORM REPORTS – critical reports issued in the 70s and 80s by education reform groups that listed many solutions to the problems faced by public education.
SCHOOL DISTRICTS – a division of public school programs within a state.
TAX REFORM – a tax reform movement that is funding increased taxes for educational reform.
THREE R’s – reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Total Number of School Districts in America
State
Total Number of Districts
State
Total Number of Districts
50 States and D.C.
14,367
Missouri
525
Alabama
127
Montana
465
Alaska
55
Nebraska
653
Arizona
214
Nevada
17
Arkansas
311
New Hampshire
164
California
999
New Jersey
582
Colorado
176
New Mexico
89
Connecticut
166
New York
709
Delaware
19
North Carolina
119
District of Columbia
1
North Dakota
234
Florida
67
Ohio
611
Georgia
180
Oklahoma
548
Hawaii
1
Oregon
233
Idaho
112
Pennsylvania
500
Illinois
905
Rhode Island
36
Indiana
292
South Carolina
95
Iowa
383
South Dakota
173
Kansas
304
Tennessee
138
Kentucky
176
Texas
1,044
Louisiana
66
Utah
40
Maine
228
Vermont
251
Maryland
24
Virginia
132
Massachusetts
248
Washington
296
Michigan
593
West Virginia
55
Minnesota
383
Wisconsin
426
Mississippi
153
Wyoming
49
Source: U.S. Department of Education National Center for Education Statistics. (1999). Common core of data, national public education survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Adapted with permission.
SNAPSHOT FORECAST OF EDUCATION STATISTICS
(Estimations 2002/2003)
- Public school enrollment, K-12, increased between 1985-2002.
- Private school enrollment has changed little over the past decade.
- Approximately 11% or about 6 million students attend private elementary and secondary schools.
- Elementary and secondary school enrollments will continue to rise.
- Pre-kindergarten and kindergarten enrollment of 3- to 5-year-olds increased about 30% between 1990-2002. The enrollment of 5-year-olds in kindergarten programs has changed little since 1990.
- The enrollment rates of 5- to 17-year-olds has remained steady since 1990, about 96%.
- Practically all elementary-aged children are enrolled in school.
- The proportion of minority students in public elementary and secondary schools increased between 1990 and 2002. During this time, the proportion of Hispanics in public elementary and secondary schools increased at a faster rate than the proportion of African Americans.
- In 1976-77, 8% of children were educated in programs for the disabled compared with 14% in 2002.
- The proportion of 18- and 19-year-olds attending high school or college is about 63%.
- The proportion of 20- to 21-year-olds attending high school or college is about 45%.
- Total college enrollment has continued to grow since 1990. Much of this growth can be attributed to the increase in the number of women over 24 years of age attending college.
- Projections indicate that from 2002 to 2010, there will be an 18% growth in enrollment of persons 25 years age in college.
- Projections indicate enrollments of persons over 25 years of age in college will be stable from 2002-2010.
- The proportion of American college students who are minorities has been increasing. In 2002, about 27% are minorities.
- Graduate school student enrollment has been rising steadily. As of 2002, graduate enrollment rose about 20%.
- The number of women in graduate school has exceeded the number of men.
- The number of male full-time graduate school students increased by 22%.
- The number of elementary and secondary school teachers has risen about 25%.
- The ratio of pupils per public school teachers is estimated to be about 17 pupils per teacher.
- The ratio of pupils per private school teachers is estimated to be about 15 pupils per teacher.
- The average salary for public school teachers has remained steady over the past 10 years, reaching $39,485.00.
- The teaching force in public elementary and secondary schools includes 74% women and 88% non-Hispanics.
- Approximately 66% of teachers have at least 10 years of full-time teaching experience.
- The proportion of high school graduates who completed the full college preparatory program recommended by the Commission on Excellence was about 30%.
- The number of high school graduates totaled about 2.8 million. About 2.5 million graduated from public schools and about 300,000 graduated from private schools.
- Many students complete high school through alternative programs, such as night schools and the General Educational Development (GED) program.
- About 84% of all 25- to 29-year-olds have completed high school or its equivalent.
- The dropout rate in high school has declined over the past 20 years. The difference in dropout rates between the races has narrowed. The dropout rate for Hispanics remains high at 30%, compared to 8% for Caucasians and African Americans.
- About 90 million adults or about 21% of the United States adult population perform at the lowest levels of literacy.
- Adults with higher levels of educational attainment have higher levels of prose literacy.
- Adults aged 19-54 have higher average literacy attainment than those 55 and older.
- The differences in literacy between younger and older adults may be due to the higher level of educational attainment among younger adults.
- Americans are becoming better educated. Within the past 30 years the adult population graduation rate has increased from 54% to 84%. During the same time period, the proportion of adults with at least four years of college increased from 11% to 25%.
- The number of degrees conferred by institutions of higher education is estimated to be about 564,000 associate degrees; 1,176,000 bachelor’s degrees; 390,000 master’s degrees; 78,000 first professional degrees; and 44,000 doctor’s degrees. Women earn the majority of degrees at the associate, bachelor’s, and master’s degree levels.
- Expenditures for public and private education, from preprimary through graduate school, are estimated at approximately 621 million.
- The expenditures of elementary and secondary schools are expected to total about $775 billion, while institutions of higher education will spend about $250 billion.
- The total expenditures for education are expected to amount to about 7.5% of the gross domestic product.
- The state share of revenues for funding public elementary and secondary schools grew through most of the 1980s, but in 1987 the trend began to reverse.
Between 1986-87 and 1993-94, the local share of school funding rose while the proportion from state government dropped.
By 2002, a greater proportion shifted back to the states as 47.5% of revenues came from state sources, 45.9% came from local sources, and 6.6% came from the federal government.
- The estimated current expenditures per student in average daily attendance is about $6,951.00. After adjustment for inflation, this represents an increase of 15% since 1988-89.
- Private colleges are heavily dependent on tuition for revenues, receiving 43% from tuition.
- Public colleges and universities receive about 40% of revenues from state and local governments.
- Expenditures per student at institutions of higher education through the 1990s has been slow in growth.
- After adjustment for inflation, current fund expenditures of higher education per student rose about 16% between 1980-1981 and 1988-89, but increased only 8% between 1992-2002.
- Annual undergraduate charges for tuition, room, and board are estimated to be $8,218.00 at public four-year colleges and $19,980.00 at private four-year colleges.
- On a per student basis, adjusted for inflation, expenditures for scholarships and fellowships rose about 85% at public universities between 1986-2002, compared with 9% for instructional expenditures.
- On a per student basis, expenditures on scholarships and fellowships rose about 68% at private universities between 1986-2002.
- Research expenditures in public institutions of higher education rose by 31% per student at public universities and 36% at other public four-year colleges.
- Students at private colleges are more likely to receive aid than students at public colleges.
- College students obtain financial aid through a variety of programs; 56% receive some sort of federal aid, and 11% participate in work-study programs.
- Private colleges provide aid from internal sources to over half of their full-time undergraduates.
- For all full-time undergraduate public and private college students, the average student aid package from all sources totaled about $6,932.00 in 2002.
- Federal support for education was sizeable between fiscal years 1965-2002. Large increases occurred between 1965 and 1975. After a period of relative stability between 1975-80, federal funding for education declined approximately 16% between 1980 and 1985. From 1990-2002, federal funding for education increased by 29%.
Note: Much of the information provided is available at the: United States Department of Education. (1999). Mini-digest of education statistics. Washington DC: National Center for Education Statistics, (NCES).
C. SOME PRECEDING THOUGHTS
- How many pupils are served in public education in the U.S.?
Fifty-four million students for the 2002/03 school year; about 6 million students in private schools; about 40 million for the ’87-’88 school year in 15,713 school districts; 1985 was the first year in 14 years where there was an increase in enrollment; an additional 5.6 million students were in private schools.
- What were the major criticisms voiced in the reports on education in the early 80s?
- Major portions of the public are functionally illiterate, as are many of our 17 year olds.
- Science and math participation was down as were science and math scores.
- More than 40% of our high school students were in a general curriculum rather than a college preparatory one.
- Students in this country spend less time in school and less time studying than in most other industrialized countries.
- Teachers were coming from the bottom of their graduating classes–both high school and college–partly because the pay was $17,000 on the average for a teacher with 12 years experience.
3. What is the status of reforms initiated during the early 80s?
The very substantial and ever increasing dollars spent for education have not yet given us the results our children deserve.
- What is the purpose of public education?
The original purpose was to teach students to read well enough to be able to understand their Bible readings. It evolved to teaching the Three R’s of Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic. Now we expect our schools to teach everything from the basic R’s to include civic, vocational, artistic, and personal goal instruction and fulfillment.
5. What goal is the Conservative movement playing in public education?
The New Right believes our schools have gotten away from their purposes and from traditional values. They are lobbying for
- reduction or removal of extra-curricular activities (all of them);
- more academic emphasis;
- emphasis on moral education;
- reinstatement of school prayer;
- more family control of the educational process. They are attempting to write legislation that the states can all copy. They want to promote creationism, to censor textbooks and library books, to promote interests of “Christian” schools, to end the unions and their influence, and to fight “secular humanism.”
Some Christian values promoted in the curriculum by the Conservative movement include:
- promotion of two-parent families with the father working and the mother at home;
- sexual abstinence before marriage;
- abstinence from smoking, drinking, and drugs;
- the immorality of gay and lesbian lifestyles;
- forbidding abortion;
- patriotism;
- obedience to and respect for authority;
- politeness;
- courtesy;
- honesty;
- prayer;
- humility;
- reverence for God.
- What has been, and is emerging as, the federal government’s role in public education?
The federal government’s role has been one of a watch dog and a guide dog combined. It was supposed to ensure that the schools in all areas of the country were adequately run and adequately funded. The true failure has been in the short-sighted view of “adequate” achievement.
- What is multicultural education?
It began as a movement to promote racial equality and harmony. Americanization has meant blending into/with the white dominant middle class. Correcting errors of omission, stereotyping, and misinformation, as well as information dissemination, has been replaced/absorbed by multicultural education. Now the goal is to assimilate reliable cultural pluralism into the overall curriculum, a concept predicated upon a fundamental belief that “all people must be accorded respect, regardless of age, race, sex, economic class, religion, physical, ethnic origin, or mental ability.”
8. What teacher organizations have influence in education?
NEA – National Educators Association
AFT – American Federation of Teachers
Many leading authorities believe these organizations are losing authority and influence. Many people believe strong unions are a barrier to educational reforms. They have huge lobbying budgets.
9. What are some characteristics of effective schools?
- Strong administrative leadership that includes the principal:
- having a clear vision about the desired direction of the school;
- having a commitment to improvement of instruction;
- encouraging participative decision making;
- serving as a buffer for teachers so that they can devote maximum time to working with students.
- Safe and orderly environment that includes:
- working conditions that support the efforts of teachers to address specific problems of their students;
- environment conducive to teaching and learning.
- Emphasis on instruction in the basic skills including:
- the school having a commitment to the basic skills as instructional goals;
- basic skills being the foundation for higher order thinking skills.
- High teacher expectations of students to include:
- setting high performance standards for students;
- providing specific instructions and are sensitive to individual differences;
- using clear and appropriate rewards to recognize student work.
- Monitoring and reporting of student performance including:
- using systematic methods to assess student progress;
- aligning curriculum across subject areas and grades;
- matching curriculum, desired outcomes, and assessment activities.
- Necessary resources to meet objective including:
- making available sufficient personnel and materials in the school;
- providing sufficient time for instructional planning, staff development, and adapting new innovations;
- providing opportunities for professional growth.
- Culture of the school including:
- positive human interactions among students and teachers;
- continuous growth and development of students and teachers;
- state-of-the-art instructional practices and strategies for teaching and learning.
D. DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES
1. List some of the criticisms presented in A Nation At Risk.
- 23 million U.S. adults are functionally illiterate;
- 13% of all 17-year-olds & 48% of minority 17-year-olds are functionally illiterate;
- SAT scores declined from ’63 to ’80;
- science achievement scores of 17-year-olds declined in ’69, ’73, and ’75;
- remedial math classes in college increased by 72% from ’75 to ’80;
- number of students in general curriculum in high schools increased to 42%;
- 31% of high school graduates completed intermediate algebra;
- 25% of credits earned by general track high school students were in PE, health, remedial math, English, and work outside the school;
- students in other industrialized countries spend more time on science and math;
- 20% of all four-year universities had to accept all students from state high schools;
- 50% or more of credits to graduate could be electives in 13 states;
- U.S. students spend less time in school than many other industrialized countries;
m. average school provided only 22 hours of instruction per week;
- too many teachers came from bottom of high school class and bottom of college class;
- average salary for teachers with 12 years experience was $17,000.
2. What are the status of the educational reforms initiated during the early 1980s?
- SAT and ACT scores either dropped or remained static;
- minority students increased their scores;
- the graduate rate dropped between ’85 and ’86;
- average teacher pay had risen 38%;
- average pupil spending increased by 50%;
- twelve states instituted minimum competency testing for grade promotion and twenty-four other states planned to implement minimum competency testing.
3. What is the magnitude of public education in the United States?
Public education in the United States is big business. Some of the emphasis of school districts and regulators needs to be taken off of the business end of things and concentrated on the education end of things. Some 54 million students are directly affected, along with the teachers and administrators. Suppliers, knowing they have a captive market, are allowed to gouge schools on a regular basis, just as they do other government entities. Our schools deserve a fair shake.
4. What effect does declining enrollments have on schools?
- affects state funding;
- impacts on the number of teachers needed;
- alters the class size;
- causes redistricting of school boundaries;
- changes school plant needs, buildings, and grounds.
Instructional programs are affected. The areas most affected are language arts, social studies, science, fine arts, and foreign language. This results in fewer course offerings and fewer professional positions in these areas.
5. What is the role of the federal government in education?
Reagan’s White House began returning responsibility to the states and localities. As a result, federal spending in education was reduced.
Again, the federal government’s role has been one of a watch dog and guide dog combined. It was intended to ensure that schools in all areas of the country functioned properly and were adequately funded. The true failure has been in the short-sighted view of “adequate” achievement. President George W. Bush is planning to initiate numerous educational reforms during the 2000s.
6. What are estimations for schooling in 2002/2003?
In the United States:
- over 25% of the people are students or are employed by schools or colleges;
- of the approximately 250 million people there are:
1… 54.5 million students in public elementary and secondary schools;
2. . 14.3 million students in higher education;
3… 3.6 million faculty and teachers;
4. . 3.9 million non-instructional personnel;
5… 68.1 million total participants.
- there are about 14,367 school systems;
- there are over 27,000 private elementary and secondary schools;
- there are over 3,500 colleges and universities;
- there are over 83,425 elementary and secondary schools;
- there are over 26,807 private elementary and secondary schools;
- there are over 2,127 four-year colleges and over 1,408 two-year colleges;
- there are over 1,532 private four-year colleges and over 440 private two-year colleges;
- about 28% of elementary and secondary students are African American or Hispanic while 17% of college students are African American or Hispanic;
- there are approximately 2,744,000 elementary and secondary teachers, of which approximately 2,391,000 serve in public schools and 353,000 serve in private schools;
- the average salary for an experienced teacher is $39,385, for a beginning teacher $28,515;
m. approximately 30% of teachers are male; approximately 70% are female;
- the dropout rate among African Americans 16 to 24 years old dropped from 28% in 1992 to 13% in 2002; for all 16- to 24-year-olds was 12% in 2002, down from 15% in 1992;
- in 2002, (persons between ages 25 and 29) – approximately 85.8 million persons earned high school diplomas (includes GED, equivalency certificates, etc.); 23.6 million persons had attained four or more years of college;
- in 2002, (persons between ages 25 and over) – approximately 80.1 million persons earned high school diplomas (includes GED, equivalency certificates, etc.); 21.5 million had attained four or more years of college;
- the education level of the adult population has been increasing since 1940; the education level among young adults (ages 25-29) has not increased significantly since 1980;
- in 2002, approximately 446,000 persons earned Associate of arts, associate of science degrees; approximately 1,044,000 persons earned bachelor of arts, bachelor of sciences degrees; approximately 320,000 persons earned master of arts, master of sciences degrees; approximately 39,000 persons earned doctor of philosophy degrees; approximately 72,000 persons earned first professional degrees: chiropractic, dentistry, law, medicine, optometry, osteopathic medicine, pharmacy, podiatry, theology, and veterinary medicine degrees.
Note: Much of the information provided here is available at the United States Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of education statistics, 1999.
E. REVIEW ITEMS
True-False
- Public education in the U.S. has been taken for granted for many years.
- All professionals agree with the A Nation at Risk report.
- Multicultural education began in the early 1980s.
- The reforms initiated during the 1980s were all very successful.
- The development of new technologies has not had a major impact on education.
- The tax revolt of the late 1970s was a continuation of a trend started in the mid-1960s.
Multiple Choice
- Recent criticisms of public education began in the _______.
- a. late 1960s b. late 1970s c. early 1980s d. early 1970s
- Approximately _______ students are served in public schools.
- a. 25 million b. 30 million c. 75 million d. 54 million
- The conservative movement advocating extreme viewpoints is _______.
- a. conservative pool b. new right c. far right
d. conservative coalition e. oversight movement
- The tax reform bill passed in Massachusetts in 1980 was _______.
- a. Proposition 13 b. Proposition 2½ c. Proposition 191
d. retrenchment
- The number of schools using microcomputers increased 16% in 1982 to ______% in 1988.
- a. 25% b. 50% c. 70% d. 90% e. 97%
Article Source: http://www.articlesbase.com/science-articles/william-kritsonis-phd-on-schooling-1735692.html
About the Author:
Dr. Kritsonis Recognized as Distinguished Alumnus
In 2004, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies. Dr. Kritsonis was nominated by alumni, former students, friends, faculty, and staff. Final selection was made by the Alumni Association Board of Directors. Recipients are CWU graduates of 20 years or more and are recognized for achievement in their professional field and have made a positive contribution to society. For the second consecutive year, U.S. News and World Report placed Central Washington University among the top elite public institutions in the west. CWU was 12th on the list in the 2006 On-Line Education of “America’s Best Colleges.”